Roman History to 1099

(OOC: Sources for factual history and historical figures can be found at Wikipedia)

Origins (4390-753 BC)

According to tradition, Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome on April 21, 753 BC, although recent archaeological excavations indicate that the city itself existed as early as 4390 BC. Not much is known about the period from 4390 to 753, although it is speculated that in its old days Rome was nothing more than an old trading facility used by many nations and that formal “state” was not established until 753. Indeed, some archaeological evidence does point to specific references to people like Aeneas, Latinus, Romulus and Remus in their contemporary periods, providing some credence to the legends.

The Kingdom of Rome (753-510 BC)

According to Livy, seven kings- Romulus 753 BC-716 BC, Numa Pompilius 715 BC-674 BC, Tullus Hostilius 673 BC-642 BC, Ancus Marcius 642 BC-617 BC, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus 616 BC-579 BC, Servius Tullius 578 BC-535 BC, and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 535 BC-510 BC/509 BC- initially led the Romans. Archaeology has proven the existence of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus and his subsequent overthrow, as well as the existence of Servius Tullius, Ancus Marcius and Romulus. The Kingship was not based on inheritance but rather the Senate, who ultimately held the power to approve the King the citizens voted for. However, following the rape of Lucretia the Romans felt that the Kingdom had run its course, precipitating a revolt led by Lucius Junius Brutus in 510 BC. Brutus’ eventual victory over Tarquin established the Roman Republic, ending the reign of the Kings.

The Roman Republic (509-27 BC)

Following Brutus’ revolt, the Romans declared a Republic and named him Consul, the overall leader of the Republic. All of the Republic’s offices were contained in the Senate, which received even more power during this period, and the Roman citizen body elected all offices. For the first 200 years or so, when the Republic nominally held just Latium, it functioned fine, providing an easily centralized authority that governed every aspect of the State. There were still a few problems however, namely involving the predominantly wealthy patricians and predominantly poor plebeians, who in the early days were caught in a power struggle that was not settled until 287 BC, when the Roman Senate finally gave the Council of the Plebs (which originated in 494 following a revolt against patrician domination) the force of law.

In its later years, however, the Roman Republic’s power got tested more and more each year as the Roman State expanded across the Mediterranean, starting in 290 and picking up steam following Rome’s victory over Carthage in the First Punic War of 264-41. Not only did the Republic now count amongst its peoples ethic groups that were distinctly non-Roman (giving the Republic a multicultural flair that did not exist in its early days), but the provinces allowed the lower-class Senators (who were assigned to the provinces) to gain in wealth and in power, leading to widespread corruption and power grabs towards the middle of the first century BC. Several ambitious Senators- namely Julius Caesar and his adopted son Octavian- led two Triumvirates that established dictatorships over the Roman State and effectively abolished the Republic, although the Senate still continued. The Triumvirates led to two civil wars, after which in 27 BC the Senate bestowed the title of “Princeps” and “Augustus” onto Octavian (who also assumed the title “imperator”), the eventual winner of the last civil war, who then assumed the unchallenged position atop the Roman political landscape.

The Early Empire (27 BC-AD 405)

After Octavian ascended the throne (as Augustus) in 27 BC, the State now officially became an Empire. From here up to the present day, the title of “imperator” was limited to solely Augustus and his successors, whereas before it was given to great military commanders. However, the early Empire under Augustus I made every effort it could to look like the continuation of the Republic, even when Augustus covertly took most of the power away from the Senate. It was under Augustus that Rome added more territory than at any other time in its early history, expanding all the way to the Danube River and finishing off Julius Caesar’s conquest of Gaul and Spain.

For the first two hundred plus years or so of the First Empire, the Roman Emperors were more concerned with keeping the Imperial boundaries around the Mediterranean intact than with expansion, although Claudius I added Britain to the Empire and Trajan I annexed Dacia, Mesopotamia and Armenia to the Empire. Then, under Septimus Severus I, the Romans underwent on a major expedition eastwards, conquering Persia, India and China by AD 205. The expedition strained many resources in the Empire, but the goods they received from their new territories more than replenished them. However, holding the new lands grew more difficult with each passing year, precipitating in the Crisis of the Third Century in 235 when Emperor Alexander Severus was defeated by a Persian revolt and later killed by his soldiers. From then, Roman rule across the Empire collapsed, accelerating in 251 when Persia, India and China finally seceded from the Empire after successful revolts, as well as Gaul under Postumus and Syria under Palmyra in 258 and 260 respectively. The Empire also faced invasions from several Germanic tribes, one of whom- the Goths- managed to annex Dacia in 270. The crisis was ended by the Emperor Aurelian, who soundly defeated all of Rome’s enemies (including the new Sassanid Persian state) and restored the Empire to its pre-Severan boundaries (minus Dacia), and by Diocletian I, who in 284 reorganized the entire Empire into several Prefectures as well as the entire governmental structure of the Empire.

Dicoletian’s reforms- strengthened by Constantine who founded Constantinople on the mouth of the Bosphorus to serve as the new Imperial capital- allowed the Roman Empire to stay intact for over 100 years. However, in 395- seventeen years after the Empire was humiliated at Adrianople- the Empire formally and officially split into two halves- a concept thought of but barely implemented by Diocletian- with the East ruled out of Constantinople and the West ruled out of Rome. The two halves were technically not separate states, but in practice they were, with one state initially paying a tribute to the other. The tribute at first flowed from Constantinople to Rome, with the wealthier half (the East) helping the poorer West, but by 405 the tribute went Eastward, which severely drained the West of funds. The Germanic tribes, sensing problems in the West, decided that now was the time to test the Empire’s defences, which they did in 406.

The Collapse (406-475)

For many Romans today, The Collapse came to be known as the Empire’s darkest period. For almost 70 years the Germanic tribes had their way with the Empire’s defences, carving out extensive kingdoms for themselves out of Imperial territory. Technically, the Germans recognized Roman over-lordship but in practice this was not followed.

The Collapse is usually held to have started in 406 when the Roman General Stilicho beat back a Germanic horde that threatened to invade Italy, leaving the Germans on the Rhineland frontier. By 409, the situation would explode- Alaric I of the Visigoths decided to invade Italy, working out a deal with the Senate at Rome to set up a rival Western Emperor at the city, with the real Western Emperor- Honorius- away in Ravenna. One year later, though, with the rival Emperor refusing to work with Alaric, the Visigoths camped outside of Rome and plundered it. The Sack- as later historians would term it- would open up the floodgates to more Germanic invasions, eventually leaving the Empire with token territories in the West. All that remained of the West in 475, when Julius Nepos assumed power, was Italy, some holdings in Gaul and Dalmatia.

Julius Nepos I, Justinian and the Lombards (474-573)

When Julius Nepos I assumed the throne of the Western Empire in 474, it had become a shell of its former self. Contemporary writers made frequent references asking when, not if, the Roman Empire would fall, routinely giving Nepos the oars to a rapidly sinking ship. This, however, is not how Nepos saw it- upon assuming power in the West; he negotiated the return of Provence to Imperial control from the Visigoths in return for Auvergne, which Nepos could not control. He was less successful with the Vandals, who were on good terms with the East and felt no need to negotiate. When his Master of Troops Orestes deposed him, contemporaries wrote him off as just another shadow Emperor, but his later actions would prove otherwise.

The watershed moment in Nepos’ reign came in 479, when he handily defeated and killed Odoacer- who proclaimed himself King of Italy after deposing Orestes’ puppet, Romulus Augustus in 476- at the Battle of Ravenna. The decisive victory restored Rome’s power and prestige, causing Nepos to see it as a revitalization of Old Rome. Many of the traditions banned in the past century- such as the gladiators- were restored under Nepos, who became the first ruler ever to acknowledge freedom of religion. Not everything went smoothly- the pagans and the Christians would fight amongst each other for recognition and power within the state after Nepos’ rule, and Nepos alienated himself from the East after boldly attempting to assert himself as the sole Roman Emperor. Still, his legacy for restoring old Roman power cannot be ignored, and for that his name is forever etched into the Roman history books.

Despite Nepos’ failure to reunite the two Empires, following Rome’s revitalization talks again began to surface about reunification. Constantinople- which the East began to officially refer to itself as to avoid confusion- now saw the revived Roman State as a valuable ally and felt there were only benefits to the State again being united as one. Efforts began under Constantinopolitan Emperor Justin I, but only seriously took hold under Justinian I.

At first, Justinian’s plan for reunification of the Empire worked- he sent his General, Belisarius, to conquer the Vandal kingdom, which he did easily in 533-34, to restore the old granary of Rome. Then he sent Belisarius against the Ostrogoths, which he conquered by 540. Belisarius would then manage to conquer the old Roman province of Rhaetia a year later, flipping the provinces of Rhaetia and North Africa to Rome and showing Constantinople as a strong ally who was really there to help Rome. It came, thus, as no surprise that when, in 542, the Constantinopolitans offered to reunite the Empire the Romans were eager to do so, as they were convinced that they were uniting with friends.

However, the Romans’ new rosy relationship with Constantinople would quickly go sour. The first hit came when Justinian did not move the capital to Rome, as many had thought he would. The second came when Justinian, quarrelling with Belisarius at the time, failed to effectively deal with a new threat- the Lombards- who invaded Italy in 545 and nearly overran the country (except Rome and the south). The third would come when Justinian’s policy towards religion persecuted not just the pagans but also the Catholics, insisting that the only allowable religion was the Christian sect at Constantinople. Justinian would manage to keep the Empire together up to his death in 565, but after the Lombards succeeded in invading and capturing most of the Italian interior three years later, the Roman Senate was convinced the Constantinopolitans were not really interested in preserving the Empire, causing the Senate to nullify the 542 agreement and elect a new Western Roman Emperor, Julius Paulianus, to represent them. Rome then allied itself with the Visigoths and the Vandals, the latter having their kingdom restored upon the insistence of the former (without Carthage, which remained Constantinopolitan), to meet with the Lombard threat. In 570, the Romans, with their new allies, met the Lombards on the field at Terni, 18 mi. south of Spoleto, and laid a crushing defeat on them. The Romans were unable to recover Italy north of Tuscany, but were able to recover Provence, and, in appreciation for the Germans’ efforts, also decided to continue their alliance with the Vandals and Visigoths and work closer together with them, establishing economic and military agreements with the two nations. The alliances still continue to this day.

Regulus, the Arabs, the Franks (573-800)

By 600, the Romans had managed to stabilize their Empire and their position in the Western Mediterranean, which again became a hub of commercial activity. For the most part, the Romans managed to get along nicely with its German neighbours, starting a new era of peace and prosperity in along the Western Mediterranean shores.

Along the East, however, war was brewing. The Constantinopolitans were again at war with Persia beginning in 603, the effects of which were devastating. In 25 years of war, the Persians and the Constantinopolitans traded blow after blow, with each nation invading deep into the other’s territories only for the attacks to be later repulsed. This fact was not lost on the Romans, whose Emperor at the time, Regulus I, decided to issue a stunning proclamation that declared that the Empire officially recognized all outside governments as sovereign states. The proclamation- later referred to as “Regulus’ Words”- was merely a diplomatic and political move, as in practice the Romans had recognized foreign states for decades. However, in light of their new alliances, it became obvious that Rome needed to officially recognize at least its neighbours, and Regulus was the first to do so.

Around 632, a new threat emerged from the east- the Arabic tribes, who were now united under Mohammed. The Arabs had in fact been around for centuries, with their first recorded battle being at Qarqar in 853 BC against the Assyrian King Shalmaneser III, but for the most part they had been divided. Having now found a new religion- Islam- they decided to spread the word around the world, with their first target being Constantinople’s lands. In 636, the Arabs defeated the Constantinopolitans at Yarmuk (allowing the Arabs to take the Levant), and five years later captured Heliopolis and Egypt. The Arabs also launched an invasion of Persia, ending with the 651 capture of Merv and the killing of the last Sassanid King, Yazdegerd III. The result gave the Arabs undisputed control over not just Arabia but the Levant, Egypt and Iran as well, giving them a massive Empire in just a few decades. Their expansion was not lost on the Romans and their allies, who in earnest began to ready their defences for the Arab assault.

Their preparations were made almost in vain as the Arabs advanced quickly into the heart of the Vandal and Visigothic kingdoms, also managing to capture Aquitaine from the Romans. However, at Tours the Arabs met a combined Roman-Frankish force led by Roman Emperor Tiberius II and Frankish Mayor Charles Martel in 732, and were soundly defeated. By 800, the Frankish King Charlemagne annexed Bavaria, Westphalia and Lombardy, and in 801- following Roman assistance in conquering the Avar Kingdom- Charlemagne restored the Provence region to Rome, as well as Aquitaine, in exchange for northern Italy. The Romans quickly did so. A few years later the thrones of the Vandal Kingdom and Visigothic Kingdoms were restored by combined Roman-Frankish victories over the Arabic Emir of Cordoba, allowing the Vandals to claim Valencia and the Visigoths northern Spain.

Conflicts with the Popes, the German Empire (801-1098)

It was about this time that the conflicts between Rome and the Papacy intensified. Although Rome was the home for the Pope, official Roman policy prohibited the Church from establishing itself as the only allowed religion in the Empire, although there were periods of persecution within Rome- for example, in 852 there was the First Great Purge of the Paganists under Diocletian II (who so assumed the title because he wanted to remodel the Empire like the first one did), followed by a second ten years later. Both times, however, the paganists found leaders who were capable of keeping the group one step ahead of the lynching that was occurring at the time, as well as organizing massive protests that even Christian Romans supported.

By 962, a new problem came to light. Following a decree by Emperor Claudius III- that again protected the paganists- Pope Sylvester II responded by crowing Prince Otto of Germany as “Holy Roman Emperor”, arguing that in 324, Constantine I had “donated” the Western Empire to the Popes. Claudius responded by immediately declaring the document a forgery, noting that if it were true the Popes would not need to wait six hundred years before deciding to enact it. However, in the sixty or so years following Claudius’ death in 965 (some say it was due to a Papal intrigue), the Roman Emperors’ view of the Donation was inconsistent- some recognized it (actually being crowned by the Pope), some only recognized it partly (by simply allying Rome with the Pope) and some flatly rejected it. However, by 1030, German Emperor Conrad II- who saw the Romans as a potentially important ally, noting their alliance to the Germanic Vandals and Visigoths- decided to formally ask the Romans to join in an alliance with the German nations. The Romans hesitated on the invitation at first, fearing that it may cause an unfixable rift between the paganists and Christians, but in 1032, following another Imperial Decree protecting the paganists, the Romans decided to formally enter the alliance as a way to appease their Christian subjects. It was then that the Romans finally accepted the term “Holy Roman Empire” as a name for the alliance, seeing it as a compromise- on a Roman perspective, it made it appear like they were furthering a Christian cause and were the leaders of the cause, while on a German perspective it allowed for an alliance that stretched to the Mediterranean to the North Sea (thus dividing Europe) and for Christianity to be the main bulwark of the alliance. The arrangement was not always favourable, as at times the Romans protested being included in the alliance for its pro-Christian leanings.

See Also

• History of Rome, 1099-1650
• History of Rome, 1650-1900
• History of Rome, 1900-Present